Restaurante & Cafetaria
Entry Panel
1385 > 10th JULY - 14th AUGUST
THE BATTLE
THE DEPLOYMENT OF THE ARMIES
THE CASTILIANS
King John I of Castile invaded Portugal on the 10th of July 1385, crossing the border at Almeida and then advancing towards Coimbra and Leiria, where he set up camp with his army.
The Battle of Aljubarrota approached. The army advanced at a slow march. Estimates suggest they covered daily distances of around 25–30 kilometres, which would have been interspersed with necessary rest days to ensure the men and animals would not reach their destination exhausted. Once on Portuguese soil, the Castilian army covered approximately 250 kilometres before reaching Aljubarrota.
THE PORTUGUESE
After the Council of War held in Abrantesa on the 6th of August, and since no consensus had been reached among the Portuguese regarding action against Castile, Nuno Álvares Pereira left the camp with his around 2,000 men, heading to the battlefield. Having reconsidered, the King of Portugal met the Constable’s army in Tomar on the 8th of August. They would depart from Ourem three days later, bound for Porto de Mós. On the 13th of August, aware that the Castilian army was camped in Leiria, Nuno Álvares Pereira scouted the battlefield with 100 cavalrymen and selected the location for the Portuguese army. On the day of the battle, the 14th of August, the Portuguese camp awoke at 4 a.m., and a Mass was held. At around 5 a.m., the Portuguese troops began marching, with the cavalry arriving at the battlefield at around 6 a.m. The foot soldiers, wings, and rearguard were positioned by around 9:30 a.m. By 11 a.m., when the Castilian scouts began to appear, the entire Portuguese army was already in battle formation.
THE POSITIONS OF THE ARMIES
The first position
The Portuguese army’s first position at the northern edge of the São Jorge Plateau was very favourable, as the Castilians would have to climb a steep slope to attack.
Aware of this, King John I of Castile’s army manoeuvred around the position, prompting the Portuguese to move 2 kilometres further south to a second position in the central area of the plateau, where they were positioned by around 2:30 p.m.
The second position
This location, which seemed more favourable to the Castilians—as they could attack via a gentle descent—ultimately worked in the Portuguese army’s favour. The narrow access route, combined with obstacles such as ditches, trou de loup, and abatises, caught the Castilians off guard and hindered their advance.
THE COMPOSITION OF THE FORCES
CASTILIAN
According to medieval chroniclers and contemporary historians, the Castilian forces would have ranged between 31,000 and 44,000 men, consisting of cavalry, lancers, crossbowmen, foot soldiers, and logistical supporters. King John I of Castile’s army encompassed a significant contingent of nobles, numbering around 2,000 French knights, many of whom were veterans of the Hundred Years’ War, particularly campaigns in Castile in support of Henry II of Trastámara.
According to Fernão Lopes, the Castilian army’s train consisted of 700 carts, which carried the essentials for the soldiers’ survival and operations (tents, weapons, tools, food, etc.). The same chronicler mentions that, since crossing into Portugal, the Castilian army had been seizing all the cattle it encountered. By the time they reached Leiria, the number of cattle seized would have reached 8,000.
As part of the Castilian column was still marching when the attack began, not all troops participated in the battle. Of the total number of soldiers, it is estimated that only about 10,000 were actually involved in the combat.
A significant portion of the crossbowmen and foot soldiers did not make it to the battlefield.
The Castilian forces included several Portuguese nobles loyal to Queen Beatrice, who formed part of the vanguard and were thus among the first to engage in the first attack.
The Castilian army was composed approximately of the following:
| VANGUARD | FRENCH KNIGHTS, SQUIRES, AND CROSSBOWMEN | 2,000 |
|---|---|---|
| LEFT WING | KNIGHTS AND SQUIRES | 700 |
| RIGHT WING | KNIGHTS AND SQUIRES | 700 |
| 2nd LINE | ||
| Mounted | KNIGHTS, LIGHT CAVALRY, AND CROSSBOWMEN | 5,100 |
| Foot soldiers | CROSSBOWMEN | 7,500 |
| FOOT SOLDIERS AND MEN-AT-ARMS | 15,000 | |
| NON-COMBATANT SUPPORT PERSONNEL | 11,000 | |
| TOTAL | 42,000 |
PORTUGUESE
Medieval chroniclers such as Fernão Lopes, Jean Froissart, an Anonymous Author, and Pero López de Ayala, alongside contemporary historians like Ximenez de Sandoval, Alcides de Oliveira, Augusto Costa Veiga, and João Gouveia Monteiro, present varying estimates of the size of the Portuguese forces.
However, it is possible to estimate that the Portuguese army was composed of the following combatants:
| VANGUARD | KNIGHTS AND FOOTSOLDIERS | 1,800 |
|---|---|---|
| LEFT WING | CROSSBOWMEN, KNIGHTS, AND FOOTSOLDIERS | 900 |
| RIGHT WING | ARCHERS, KNIGHTS, AND FOOTSOLDIERS | 900 |
| REARGUARD | KNIGHTS, CROSSBOWMEN, AND FOOTSOLDIERS | 3,800 |
| BAGGAGE TRAIN | FOOTSOLDIERS AND CROSSBOWMEN | 600 |
| TOTAL | 7000 |
Recognising the difficulty of attacking the Portuguese army’s “First Position” at the northernmost edge of the São Jorge Plateau, the Castilians chose to circumvent the Portuguese defences and reposition themselves 2 kilometres to the south, at Chão da Feira.
Against the advice of some experienced knights, who argued they should wait until the entire Castilian army was in position, the French knights launched an attack on the Portuguese forces, believing it would be easy to defeat the smaller Portuguese force. The Castilian cavalry’s right and left wings were unable to join in this assault, as Nuno Álvares Pereira had deliberately positioned the Portuguese army on a narrow section of the São Jorge Plateau.
As they advanced, the French knights were quickly slowed by ditches and trou de loup dug into the terrain, exposing them to arrows and bolts fired by English longbow and Portuguese crossbowmen.
King John I of Castile then ordered a second attack by the Castilian cavalry and foot soldiers. Although they managed to breach the Portuguese vanguard, they, too, were ultimately defeated.
In view of these events and seeking to avoid capture by the Portuguese, King John I of Castile retreated to Santarém and, the following day, embarked on a voyage to Seville, sailing past Lisbon.
THE ROYAL BATTLE
14th- and 15th-century Portuguese historiography refers to the battle as the Royal Battle because it was fought between two kings. The name “Battle of Aljubarrota” came only later. It was fought on the 14th of August 1385, a Monday. According to Fernão Lopes, “It was already the hour of vespers” when the battle was commanded. The “hour of vespers” referred to the canonical hour, which corresponded to 6:00 pm in our modern time. After just over an hour of fighting, the Portuguese victory had already been made clear. The Portuguese forces fell into a formation tested by the English during the Hundred Years’ War – one Nuno Álvares Pereira is believed to have learned through contact with English soldiers during the Third Fernandine War in 1382. The formation employed at Aljubarrota was as follows: two advanced lateral wings composed of foot soldiers, including Portuguese crossbow and English longbowmen, to hinder the enemy’s advance. A vanguard positioned between the two wings, commanded by Nuno Álvares Pereira, composed of three rows of foot soldiers stretching across the São Jorge Plateau. This formation would have borne the brunt of the Castilian attack. It comprised knights who had accompanied Nuno Álvares Pereira in military campaigns over the preceding two years. The length of the Portuguese front line, including its wings and vanguard, stretched approximately 350 metres. This was one of the key strategies behind the victory at Aljubarrota, as it prevented an open field and simultaneous attack by the entire Castilian vanguard, which stretched over 750 metres. The rearguard, commanded by King John I of Portugal, stood about 150 or 200 metres further back and was also composed of three rows of foot soldiers. Laterally, only a few foot soldiers were stationed between these two lines, assigned to surveillance duties. At the rear, the baggage train carried supplies, weapons, and logistical support.
The formation of the forces on the ground, as described above, did not form a square in the strict sense of the word.
1st stage
2nd stage
BATTLEFIELD
Fernão Lopes describes the battlefield as a small plateau bordered by two streams and covered with “green heather,” a description confirmed by pollen analysis conducted during archaeological excavations. These studies confirm that the battlefield had predominantly low vegetation with some trees. The Portuguese dug trou de loup and ditches and erected abatises to strengthen their defences.
Trou de loup were small holes of various shapes and sizes dug into the ground. Recent excavations indicate the following measurements: an average diameter of 56 cm at the top, narrowing to 44.2 cm at the bottom; an average width of 39.5 cm at the top, narrowing to 25.9 cm at the bottom; and an average depth of 23.7 cm. These pits were usually camouflaged with branches and were designed to hinder the advance of enemy cavalry and foot soldiers.
In contrast, the abatis were structures designed to protect the flanks formed by Portuguese crossbow and English longbowmen. It was proven possible for 700 men equipped with spades to dig 2,000 trou de loup in just 3 hours. To ensure the element of surprise was maintained for the Castilians, these obstacles may have been constructed on the very day of the battle. However, it is also plausible that they were constructed the previous day, under the orders of Nuno Álvares Pereira. It is a question for which we may never have a definitive answer.
SKELETAL REMAINS
The casualties from the battle can be ascertained through an analysis of the skeletal remains unearthed during battlefield excavations led by Afonso do Paço in 1958, as displayed in the exhibits and corresponding graphic reconstructions.
CASUALTIES
The Battle of Aljubarrota was the decisive victory in a series of successful clashes and battles in the Alentejo and Beiras regions, which caused significant human and material losses to Castile.
Portuguese casualties on the battlefield are estimated to not have exceeded 300 to 400 combatants, while Castilian casualties numbered approximately 4,000 dead and 5,000 prisoners. In the days following the battle, more than 5,500 fleeing Castilians were killed by the Portuguese population. The legend of the “Padeira de Aljubarrota” (the Baker of Aljubarrota) reflects the Portuguese people’s actions following the battle. Due to the political significance of the Battle and the many nobles and men-at-arms who died there, Castile remained in mourning for a period of two years.
THE WEAPONS OF ALJUBARROTA
The tactics used in the Battle of Aljubarrota had been well tested in the battles of the Hundred Years’ War, with soldiers and commanders from both sides having gained experience through these previous conflicts.
The weapons used came in various forms, and their expert handling aimed to achieve maximum effectiveness.
Some of these weapons are presented here, along with their descriptions and information on how they were used.
The longbow was a large, yew-wood bow measuring 2 to 2.5 meters long, allowing for powerful and long-range shots. This weapon was used by the English longbowmen fighting for John I of Portugal.
The composite bow was a smaller weapon measuring just 1.5 metres in length and made through the layering of various materials (granting it its name: composite). It was the most common bow in use during the Middle Ages. Within the first five minutes of the Battle of Aljubarrota, English and Portuguese longbowmen and crossbowmen fired over 15,000 arrows and bolts at the Castilian army. This gives an idea of the sheer volume of arrows and bolts fired at Aljubarrota.
A bolt was the projectile fired by a crossbow: a short, heavy arrow with a solid tip that would have been approximately 30 centimetres long. These bolts were transported in quivers attached to a crossbowman’s belt.
The crossbow was the deadliest weapon in use during the Middle Ages. It consisted of a small but robust bow mounted on a frame called a tiller. Crossbow shots were lethal over distances of many dozens of metres.
The sword was a double-bladed weapon with parallel edges, primarily used for cutting. It was the most noble of medieval weapons.
A dagger was a smaller-bladed weapon from the sword family, measuring approximately 60 cm in length. It was often used as a secondary weapon to a sword. Nuno Álvares Pereira carried a dagger on his belt at Aljubarrota.
A thrusting sword was a type of sword with a thin, sharp blade, the edge of which tapered towards its point. It was designed to be used as a stabbing weapon. This was the weapon used by John I of Portugal at Aljubarrota.
The pike was a long spear with a shaft measuring 5 to 6 metres. It was planted at an angle in the ground to counter the enemy vanguard's first charge.
A short spear was a widely used, metal-tipped weapon, typically produced in large numbers and commonly carried by foot soldiers.
This small lance had a shaft that would have been 2 to 3 metres long.
A poleaxe was a type of battle-axe, a violent but highly effective weapon. King John I of Portugal used one at Aljubarrota.
The bascinet was a type of headgear belonging to the helmet family, featuring a movable visor. Due to its high cost, it was typically associated with the nobility.
A chainmail shirt was a piece of armour made from interlinked metal rings worn by wealthier combatants. It was worn over padded jackets and could weigh around 5 kilograms.
A gambeson was a padded jacket made from multiple layers of cotton, worn underneath body armour to reduce the impact of enemy blows.
A harness was body armour made of anatomically moulded metal plates, corresponding to what is commonly known as 'armour.' In Portugal during the time of Aljubarrota, full harnesses were not yet used; only some separate pieces were worn. A full harness could weigh more than 20 kilograms.
The terms "leaf" or "soy" were used in Portugal to refer to body armour made of small metal plates fastened onto durable fabric. In Europe, these were called brigandines.
Mail chausses were a type of leg protection, which could be made of metal mesh.
