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THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR
Social conflicts manifested as political rivalries among European monarchies, polarised in a state of perpetual war between England and France. This was marked by numerous battles on French soil between 1337 and 1453, a period known as the Hundred Years’ War. This was the first major European war, resulting in significant changes to Western Europe’s economic, social, and political landscape. Over the course of more than a century, alliances multiplied around the structural opposition between the French and English crowns, almost always driven by circumstantial interests. France was supported by Scotland, Bohemia, Castile, and the papacy of Avignon. England had the Flemish and Germans as allies. Portugal wavered between the two, ultimately forming a lasting alliance with the English monarchy from 1386 onwards.
This conflict saw the use of innovative weapons and military tactics, tested in tough battles such as Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356), and Agincourt (1415).
KING FERDINAND
King Ferdinand was born in 1345 to King Peter I and Constanza Manuel and went on to ascend to the throne of Portugal in 1367 at the age of 21. During his reign of just sixteen years, the young monarch faced calamitous circumstances of constant crises. His reign was marked by the political crisis he inherited from his father, his nobility being dominated by Castilian families, and the economic and social turmoil faced due to the plague, poor harvests, and three wars with Castile, which he was unable to win, despite the international alliances formed, including one with the English Duke of Cambridge.
Although he was betrothed to the daughter of the King of Castile, he ended up marrying Leonor Teles in 1371, who was unpopular due to her having already been married and seen to be too ambitious.
Threatened by Castile, he promoted the construction of the wall of Lisbon in 1375, which would prove decisive in the Castilian siege of Lisbon in 1384.
To consolidate the fragile peace with Castile, he arranged the marriage of his only daughter, Beatrice, to John I of Castile by means of the Treaty of Salvaterra de Magos, concluded in April 1383. According to this treaty, if no heirs had been produced by King Ferdinand’s death, the throne of Portugal would pass to Beatrice and John I of Castile. The King of Castile would be granted the title of King of Castile and Portugal. These new circumstances endangered Portugal’s independence.
It is, therefore, easy to see how a severe crisis followed Ferdinand’s death in October 1383.
1383 › 22nd OCTOBER - 5th DECEMBER
THE DYNASTIC CRISIS
The political vacuum that followed Ferdinand’s death saw the following names step into the line of succession: Beatrice, his only daughter and Queen of Castile, Princes John (then imprisoned in Castile) and Denis, sons of Peter I and Inês de Castro.
Later, John, Grand Master of the Order of Aviz, bastard son of King Peter I, would join the list. Unassociated with the political and economic difficulties that plagued the final years of King Ferdinand’s reign, the latter was soon supported by the majority of the common folk and the urban bourgeoisie, positioning himself as the candidate best suited to ensure the Kingdom’s independence.
Meanwhile, the dowager queen, Leonor Teles, had taken on the role of “Regent of the Kingdom.” Highly unpopular, she was accused of disloyalty to her late husband, King Ferdinand, and deemed responsible for the kingdom’s critical situation.
On the 6th of December, Count João Fernandes Andeiro, Leonor Teles’ chief advisor, was executed by the Master of Aviz, backed by the people of Lisbon.
Queen Leonor fled to Alenquer and then to Santarém, where she sought military assistance from her son-in-law, King John I of Castile, to restore her power. The populations of cities such as Porto, Coimbra, Tomar, Portalegre, Évora, Pinhel, Estremoz, Montemor-o-Novo, and Beja revolted and rallied behind the Master of Aviz, who was proclaimed “Regent and Defender of the Kingdom.” The Master of Aviz then established the Kingdom’s Council, with João das Regras as Chancellor. He also secured the support of Nuno Álvares Pereira, who was appointed to the Council at just 23 years old and became its military leader.
Upon learning of the events in Lisbon, King John I of Castile invaded Portugal, seizing the city of Guarda. On the 12th of January, he entered Santarém, forcing Queen Leonor Teles to relinquish the regency. He then declared himself King of Portugal.
1384 > 6th APRIL
THE BATTLE OF ATOLEIROS
To counter the frequent Castilian military incursions and devastation in the Alentejo, the Master of Aviz appointed Nuno Álvares Pereira “Commander of the Territory Between the Tagus and the Guadiana” in March 1384.
In Estremoz, he called upon all able men to join him in battle, declaring, “Since the Castilians have invaded the lands of my lord, the Master of Aviz, causing harm and destruction, we must, with God’s help, face and defeat them, which will forever earn us honour and renown.” Then, alongside his men, he marched to the town of Fronteira, which was under siege.
The battle took place at the Herdade dos Atoleiros, 2.5 kilometres from the town of Fronteira.
The Castilian army consisted of over 1,000 cavalry and around 3,000 foot soldiers, including crossbowmen, while the Portuguese forces had approximately 300 cavalry, 100 crossbowmen, and 1,000 foot soldiers. Nuno Álvares Pereira ordered all his troops to dismount and positioned them on a slight elevation protected by a stream (known as Águas Belas) and clayey terrain (the “Atoleiros”).
He ordered the Portuguese army into a formation consisting of the vanguard, two wings, and a rearguard. The vanguard consisted of foot soldiers and dismounted cavalry, who formed a tightly packed barrier with their lances planted in the ground to push back the Castilian advance. The crossbowmen were positioned in two wings behind the vanguard, keeping the Castilian cavalry within range at 200 metres. Nuno Álvares Pereira placed himself in the vanguard next to his flag.
The battle began, and repeated attacks by the Castilian cavalry failed to breach the Portuguese vanguard. Castilian horses and riders fell, struck by crossbow bolts and missiles and stones hurled by Portuguese foot soldiers, creating obstacles that hindered the advance of the remaining troops. After some time, the Castilians fled the battlefield and were pursued by Portuguese cavalry until nightfall.
According to Fernão Lopes, no casualties were recorded among the Portuguese, while around 200 Castilian cavalry were killed.
The Battle of Atoleiros had a significant psychological impact on the Master of Aviz’s supporters, having proven that, despite their military strength, the Castilians were not invincible. Thus, the victory at Atoleiros not only contributed to defending Lisbon but also to strengthening the Master’s political position.
THE UNFOLDING OF THE BATTLE OF ATOLEIROS
1384 > 29th MAY - 28th OCTOBER
THE SIEGE OF LISBON
John I of Castile, who had invaded Portugal in January, left Santarém to lay siege to Lisbon, which was protected by a wall measuring approximately 5,400 metres, with an average height of 8 metres, and 77 towers.
King John I positioned his headquarters in Santos, near the river. His army comprised 10,000 foot soldiers, 6,000 crossbowmen, and 6,000 cavalrymen, who effectively encircled the city by the 29th of May. The Castilian forces camped on the hills of Alcântara and Campolide, while a fleet of 61 ships of the line, 16 galleys, 1 galiot, and several merchant ships blocked the Tagus River from the 26th May onwards.
Although on the 18th of July a Portuguese fleet assembled in Porto, comprising 17 ships of the line and 17 galleys, broke through the naval blockade and delivered provisions to Lisbon, famine spread within the city. Rui Pereira, commander of this fleet, lost his life during the battle, sacrificing himself to save Lisbon.
Having concluded his military campaigns in the Alentejo, Nuno Álvares Pereira arrived in Palmela on the 20th of August.
That night, he ordered a large fire to be lit on the castle tower to signal his presence and boost the morale of the Portuguese residents of Lisbon. He then advanced with his troops and banners to the hills on the southern bank of the Tagus, opposite Santos, where he had trumpets sounded. Observing this, the King of Castile inquired who it was and why no one had attacked him, to which his subordinate replied, “My lord, I do not know, but I suspect it is Nuno Álvares Pereira. Give thanks to God and this river that stands between you and him, for if it were not here, he would surely come for you!” The final Castilian attack was launched on the city on the 27th of August, which involved a simultaneous attack on the Santa Catarina gates and via the river in the Ribeira area.
The Portuguese resisted, with the Master of Aviz personally joining the battle in the Ribeira area.
During the siege, the plague broke out in the Castilian camp and fleet, killing up to 200 men per day. By late August, around 2,000 of Castile’s finest soldiers had died.
According to chronicler Fernão Lopes, there were no reported cases of plague among the Portuguese, either within the city or in the Castilian camp. On the 3rd of September, the King of Castile ordered the siege to be lifted when Queen Beatrice showed signs of having caught the plague. On the 6th of September, Lisbon held a grand thanksgiving procession for the successful defence of the city, in which the Master of Aviz participated.
The siege lasted five months, with the Castilian fleet only retreating on the 28th of October. Lisbon’s successful defence proved that the Portuguese had the ability and organisational skills necessary to defend themselves militarily against Castile.
1385 > MARCH AND APRIL 1385
THE CORTES OF COIMBRA
With the Siege of Lisbon over, a meeting was held at the Monastery of São Domingos, attended by the Master of Aviz, Nuno Álvares Pereira, several nobles, and representatives of the people. A decision was made to convene the Cortes (Parliament) in Coimbra. Beginning in early March 1385, the assembly sought to shed light on the political situation following King Ferdinand’s death, establish a military strategy against Castile and its supporters, and secure funding for the inevitable war.
The clergy was represented by bishops from major cities and priors and abbots from key monasteries, the nobility by seventy-two noblemen along with many knights and squires, and the common people by over fifty representatives of various towns and cities. However, the minority group from the regions supporting Beatrice, who was married to the King of Castile, was absent.
Over more than 30 days, debates divided the assembly between those supporting Prince John, the legitimate descendant of King Peter and Inês de Castro, and those backing the Master of Aviz, represented by João das Regras.
Regarding Prince John, João das Regras argued that there was no evidence that Inês De Castro’s marriage to King Peter had been recognised by the Pope and that, as a prisoner in Castile, Prince John could not effectively defend the Kingdom of Portugal.
Thus, only the Master of Aviz, who had gained significant popular support, could secure independence for the Kingdom. He was proclaimed King of Portugal, likely between the 11th and 16th March.
Nuno Álvares Pereira was appointed Constable of the Kingdom, commanding the army and navy.
After almost two years of critical military victories, the Cortes of Coimbra filled the political void that had persisted until then. However, not everyone in Portugal, nor the King of Castile, accepted this political solution, leading to the fate of the Crown veing decided by force.
The First Portuguese Revolution
1385 > May 29
THE BATTLE OF TRANCOSO
While the King of Portugal and Nuno Álvares Pereira were in northern Portugal capturing castles loyal to Queen Beatrice’s cause, the King of Castile, who had kept Lisbon under siege with his fleet since April, ordered an invasion of Beira in May. He himself went into the Alentejo and began the siege of Elvas on the 1st of June.
Thus, the three points on which Castile’s strategy for the military occupation of Portugal was based were established.
In May, a Castilian army led by João Roiz de Castanheda, comprising approximately 1,800 cavalry, dozens of crossbowmen, and 300 foot soldiers, advanced into Portugal through Almeida, in a column stretching over 3km. Their route took them through Pinhel and Trancoso, leaving destruction in their wake, before reaching Viseu, which they pillaged and burned for around three days before retreating along the same route, taking livestock and hundreds of prisoners with them.
In response, King John I rallied the nobles of Beira, who had been hesitant up until that point, and an army of 300 lancers, some crossbowmen, and 1,000 foot soldiers was raised. They met the invaders on the Trancoso plain, on a small hill near the São Marcos Hermitage.
The Portuguese vanguard, consisting of 1,500 men, stretched approximately 200 metres, with the remaining 800 men forming a second line 50 metres behind. As in Atoleiros, all Portuguese fighters, including knights, fought on foot.
Determined to avoid the failures of the cavalry attacks seen at Atoleiros, the Castilian commander – who had also been at Atoleiros – dismounted his cavalry. Following volleys fired by the Portuguese crossbowmen, the Castilians launched several attacks, struggling through ploughed fields but failing to break the Portuguese vanguard.
The battle began at around ten in the morning and lasted approximately eight hours. The Castilian troops scattered with all their knights, many from prominent families, having been killed, along with a significant portion of their crossbowmen and foot soldiers. Beyond boosting Portuguese morale, the victory at Trancoso also led to the King of Castile abandoning the siege of Elvas and returning to his kingdom upon hearing of the defeat.
THE UNFOLDING OF THE BATTLE OF TRANCOSO
According to Pedro Gomes Barbosa and Alexandre Patrício Gouveia
PROTAGONISTS
KING JOHN I
At the time of the battle, he was 28 years old.
King John I was born on the 11th of April 1357 from an affair between King Peter I and Teresa Lourenço, the daughter of a wealthy Lisbon merchant. He was appointed Master of the Order of Aviz in 1364, at only 7 years of age. Following the death of King Ferdinand in 1383, he had Count João Fernandes Andeiro, chief adviser to Queen Regent Leonor Teles, killed. The Queen left the capital, and John I was named Regent and Defender of the Realm. Much of the population saw him as the right person to secure the Kingdom’s independence and face the military conflict looming with Castile.
He was elected King of Portugal at the Cortes of Coimbra in 1385. Following the victory at the Battle of Aljubarrota and to formalise the alliance between Portugal and England, he married Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of the Duke of Lancaster, in the See of Porto on the 2nd of February 1387. They had nine children, known as the “Illustrious Generation.” Those who survived include: Edward (King of Portugal), Pedro (Duke of Coimbra), Henry The Navigator (Duke of Viseu and Governor of the Order of Christ), Isabella (Duchess of Burgundy), John (Governor of the Order of Saint James and Constable of Portugal) and Ferdinand the Holy Prince, (Governor of the Order of Aviz). The Queen died of the plague on the 18th of July 1415. Before his marriage, King John I had two children with Inês Pires, the future Commendadora of the Monastery of Santos: Afonso (Count of Barcelos and the first Duke of Bragança) and Beatrice (Countess of Arundel). He participated in the conquest of Ceuta in 1415 – the first Portuguese stronghold outside Europe.
John I died on the 13th of August 1433, aged 76 and was buried in the Monastery of Saint Mary of the Victory (Batalha Monastery) in a double tomb alongside the remains of his wife, Queen Philippa. Likely at his request, Martim Gonçalves de Macedo, who saved his life during the Battle of Aljubarrota, is buried next to his tomb.
KING JOHN I OF CASTILE
At the time of the battle, he was 26 years old. King John was born in Épila (Zaragoza) on the 24th of August 1358 to the King and Queen of Castile, Henry II of Trastámara and Juana Manuel. He was crowned in 1379, aged 21. King John I first married Eleanor of Aragon in 1375, who died in 1382, by whom he had two sons, Henry III of Castile and Ferdinand I of Antequera, the future king of Aragon, and a daughter, Eleanor. His second marriage, to Beatrice of Portugal, produced only one son, Miguel, who died when he was one year old (1384-1385). King John I of Castile suffered from a type of malaria, of which he had an episode when he invaded Portugal and which had affected him since the beginning of August. He travelled lying on a litter or stretcher, having watched the Battle of Aljubarrota leaning against a tree, in a weakened state, too ill to fight. Having seen his army defeated, he retreated to Santarém that same night. The following day, he sailed to Lisbon and took a Castilian ship to Seville. In 1390, he attempted to convince the Cortes of Guadalajara to fund a new invasion of Portugal under the title of King of Andalusia, Murcia, and Portugal, but his proposal was rejected. He died in Alcalá de Henares following a fall from his horse on the 9th of October 1390, aged only 32, and was buried in Toledo Cathedral.
In 1390, he attempted to convince the Cortes of Guadalajara to fund a new invasion of Portugal, but his proposal was rejected.
NUNO ÁLVARES PEREIRA
Nuno Álvares Pereira’s physical courage and strategic vision were key to the military victories won by the Portuguese during the most critical period of the War of Independence.
He was 25 years old when he led the Portuguese troops in the Battle of Aljubarrota.
Nuno Álvares Pereira was born in Cernache do Bonjardim on the 24th of June 1360 to Álvaro Gonçalves Pereira, Prior of the Knights Hospitaller, and Iria Gonçalves do Carvalhal. At the age of 16, he married Leonor De Alvim, a lady of the Entre-Douro-E-Minho nobility. He saw his first combat in August 1382, during the Third Fernandine War. Having learned of the events in Lisbon and the death of Count João Andeiro in December 1383, he went to Lisbon to support the Master of Aviz, who appointed him a member of the Royal Council and his chief advisor. Nuno Álvares Pereira’s physical courage and strategic vision were key to the military victories won by the Portuguese during the most critical period of the War of Independence, between 1383 and 1402. The Battle of Aljubarrota, a pivotal event in the war with Castile, only took place because of his determination.
He argued that the Portuguese army should provoke a battle before the Castilian army reached Lisbon, as the city could not withstand another siege, and if it fell, all of Portugal would fall with it.
Seeking to weaken the morale of the Castilian army, two months after Aljubarrota, he carried out an incursion into Andalusia, which culminated in the Battle of Valverde, fought near Mérida. Realising the great difficulty he found himself in, he momentarily withdrew from the battle to seek help from God and Our Lady. He is said to have promised that, if victorious, he would build a monastery in Lisbon, which he did: the Convent of Carmo. He took part in the conquest of Ceuta in 1415 and later coordinated the city’s defences. His daughter, Beatriz Pereira, went on to marry Afonso, the son of King John I of Portugal, forming the House of Bragança. Following her death, he retired to the Convent of Carmo in 1423, the construction of which had begun in 1389. He spent the last eight years of his life helping Lisbon’s poor. He died in April 1431, aged 70. He was determined and effective in his defence of Portugal and its people, always upholding his virtues, even in the toughest moments of war. He was recognised as a saint in April 2009.
